Global map of selected POPs-contaminated sites
Illustrating legacy pollution and priority remediation needs
POPs – persistent organic pollutants
– are hazardous chemicals with distinctive and dangerous properties. They persist in the environment for a long time, can travel long distances through air or sea, and are ‘bioaccumulative’. This means they build up in living organisms, mainly in fatty tissue, with concentrations increasing up the food chain – peaking in top predators such as humans and polar bears. POPs are highly toxic, and levels found in some people and animals exceed those known to cause health and biological effects. Many act as endocrine disruptors (interfering with hormones), while others are carcinogenic, mutagenic (affecting DNA), or teratogenic (causing birth defects).Some POPs are pesticides, others are industrial chemicals, and some are unintentionally produced during chemical or combustion processes. In all cases, they degrade very slowly and remain in the environment long after pollution sources cease. Because their use and production inevitably lead to environmental release, POPs pose serious, unavoidable risks to human health and ecosystems. It is therefore essential to ban or at least severely restrict their use and eliminate legacy stockpiles and residues. Identification of POPs contaminated sites is important to assess exposure risks but also to contribute to inventories of contaminated sites. Once developed, inventories can be converted to interactive maps and published online contributing to public right to know about POP risks in their region. More information about inventory development can be accessed in the BAT BEP guidance on POP contaminated sites [1].
Safer alternatives are widely available and significantly reduce risks to people and wildlife. There are also better options for technologies and practices, such as waste incineration, that unintentionally generate POPs [2].
The Stockholm Convention
The Stockholm Convention is a global, legally binding treaty that entered into force on 17 May 2004 and, as of 1 January 2025, includes 186 Parties. It aims to eliminate major POPs, including pesticides, industrial chemicals, and unintentionally produced substances such as polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (known as 'dioxins') [3].
Unlike earlier treaties focused only on air emissions (e.g. the Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention) or waste transport (Basel Convention), the Stockholm Convention addresses all major pathways by which POPs contaminate the environment, food chains, and human health.
This map highlights POP-contaminated sites, which are increasingly important as unremediated locations remain major sources of pollution. Although efforts were made to gather the most current information, the status of the sites presented on the map may have changed, and some of them may have already been remediated.
Article 6 of the Convention states: 'In order to ensure that stockpiles consisting of or containing chemicals listed' under the Convention 'are managed in a manner protective of human health and the environment, each Party shall:' among other actions, '(e) Endeavour to develop appropriate strategies for identifying sites contaminated by chemicals listed in Annex A, B or C; if remediation of those sites is undertaken, it shall be performed in an environmentally sound manner'.
To assist Parties, experts on best available techniques (BAT) and best environmental practices (BEP) have developed specialized guidance, incorporating comments from Parties, observers, and relevant stakeholders.
POPs-contaminated sites
Although the guidance document provides a more detailed definition and description of POPs-contaminated sites, we offer a brief summary here. A POPs-contaminated site is a location where persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are present at concentrations above natural background levels, posing or potentially posing a risk to human health and the environment. While there is no single global definition, most national frameworks classify a site as contaminated if pollution significantly harms people, ecosystems, water sources, or other receptors. The contamination may result from industrial activities, pesticide use, waste disposal, or other human actions leading to the accumulation of hazardous substances in soil, water, or air.
To determine if a site is contaminated with POPs, a site-specific assessment is necessary, involving the measurement of pollutant levels and evaluation of associated risks. Unlike general policy definitions, which provide broad criteria for contamination, assessing POPs contamination requires scientific data to establish whether the pollutants exceed safe thresholds and pose a threat to human health or the environment. Once a site has been investigated and confirmed as a POP contaminated site it can be added to a national inventory of sites. This allows a risk-based comparison between sites and allocation of scarce resources to cleaning up the highest risk sites first. An inventory can also be converted to an interactive map locating the sites and providing summary information on contamination. Examples include the EU hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) inventory [4], the PFAS data Hub map [5] and the Australian PFAS Chemicals Map [6]. In early 2023, The Forever Pollution Project [7] revealed nearly 23,000 PFAS-contaminated sites across Europe, highlighting the power of investigative journalism.
More information on how to develop POP contaminated sites inventories is available in the Stockholm Convention Guidance on best available techniques and best environmental practices for the management of sites contaminated with persistent organic pollutants [1].
This Global Map of Selected POPs-contaminated Sites is by no means intended to compete with the above-mentioned projects, nor does it aim to do so. However, it illustrates that sites contaminated with POPs can take many forms — from old, mostly abandoned chemical plants that used to produce pesticides or technical POPs and now represent vast areas polluted with these substances, to obsolete pesticide storage sites, and even small medical waste incinerators with piles of dioxin-contaminated ash. Contaminated sites can also include facilities tainted with PCBs found in paints, whose removal can result in serious pollution spreading along several kilometers of a river. This diversity is what the presented map aims to show.
To successfully identify and manage POPs-contaminated sites — especially given their wide range of forms — a global guidance document is essential.
Risk reduction: How to get rid of POPs in wastes generated by remediation of contaminated sites?
After identifying contaminated sites, the question arises: how to manage POPs in waste from remediation? The best approach is prevention—stopping POPs from entering the environment, mainly through waste. This can be achieved by banning the production and use of intentional POPs and choosing technologies that do not generate unintentional POPs-like dioxins or PCBs.
A key example of a POPs source is medical waste incineration, which can be avoided by:
a) using non-combustion technologies such as autoclaves, and
b) ensuring proper waste segregation in hospitals.
Alternative technologies and practices also exist for managing other types of waste that are often sent for incineration and co-processing (burning waste in cement kilns) which are both sources of unintentional POPs [2].
For existing POP-containing waste, various management strategies exist. The expert group working on BAT/BEP Guidelines reviewed the effectiveness of non-combustion technologies for POP destruction [8]. Some methods promise effective elimination while preventing new POP formation, as required by the Stockholm Convention. In contrast, incineration—whether in waste incinerators or cement kilns—produces new POPs like dioxins, which then accumulate in the resulting waste and risk further environmental release.
Abbreviations used in the text
2,4,5-T - 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (pesticide)
AFFF - aqueous film-forming foam
BAT – best available techniques
BCD – base catalyzed decomposition (non-combustion remediation technology)
BEP – best environmental practices
BEQ – bioanalytical equivalent [193, 194]
BFRs – brominated flame retardants
DDD - dichlordiphenyldichlorethane
DDE – dichlordiphenyldichlorethene
DDT – dichlordiphenyltrichlorethane (pesticide)
deca-BDE – decabromodiphenyl ether
dl PCBs – dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls
DP – dechlorane plus
DR CALUX - dioxin-responsive chemical-activated luciferase gene expression
dw – dry weight
fw – fresh weight
GEF – Global Environemnt Facility
HCB – hexachlorbenzene (technical substance, pesticide, undesired product)
HCH – hexachlorcyclohexan (pesticide)
gamma HCH – gama isomer of hexachlorcyclohexan, usually called lindane (pesticide)
I-TEQ – international toxic equivalent
LOQ – level of quantification
lw – lipid weight
MRL – maximum residue level
OCPs – organochlorinated pesticides
PBDD/Fs – polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, shortly called „brominated dioxins“ (unintentionally produced POPs)
PBDEs – polybrominated diphenylethers (brominated flame retardants)
PCBs – polychlorinated biphenyls (technical substance)
PCDD – polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins
PCDD/Fs – polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, shortly called „dioxins“ (unintentionally produced POPs)
PCP – pentachlorophenol (pesticide)
PeCB – pentachlorobenzene
PFAS – per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances
PFBS – perfluorobutanesulfonic acid
PFCA – perfluorocarboxylic acids
PFDA – perfluorodecanoic acid
PFPHxA – perfluorohexanoic acid
PFHxS – perfluorohexanesulfonic acid
PFOA – perfluorooctanoic acid
PFOS – perfluorooctanesulfonic acidPOPs – persistent organic pollutants
PFPA – perfluoropentanoic acid
SCCPs – short-chain chlorinated paraffins
TEQ – toxic equivalent
UNEP – United Nations Envronment Programme
UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization
USAID - United States Agency for International Development
WHO-TEQ – toxic equivalent according to the document of the World Health Organization [3].
ww – wet weight
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